Self Evaluation

1) I am most proud of myself for actually being able to complete all the assignments on time. I originally had signed up for two on line courses but after watching your introductory video and how much work was expected I decided one class would be enough. That turned out to be a good move on my part because you were right this class did require more work then I had originally expected.

I thought the quality of my work for most of the assignments I did was pretty good quality (for most of the assignments). At least on par with class work I have done previously for other college courses. The cell lab I thought I did a very good job on and I was pretty happy with the final result.

I was surprised I was able to manage my time effectively enough to get all the work done for this unit. The online course is harder then going to a regular class where there is a set schedule which in a way forces you to go and learn in the classroom environment. That is the way I have taken all of my classes so far so trying to take a course online has been a new experience and so far a good one.


2) There was the last review for genetics which definitely could have used some more time and effort on my part, but that goes back to the fact I needed to manage my time better. The last week and a half I really had to focus to get everything accomplished, because I did not spend as much time at the beginning of the unit as I should have. That is one area I am going to try and improve on for this next unit, time management.
Besides the last compendium review for genetics I thought my work was pretty good overall, and as you pointed out I could document my sources better for the upcoming projects and assignments.


3) I think my work was in the B + to A - category and if it was not for running a little short on time for the genetics review I would definitely say A - work as it stands that assignment might bring me down a little, but that’s what happens when you procrastinate even just a little.


4) As I have stated earlier I think if I manage my time better and get a nice jump on Unit II then the assignments will look better because I will have more time to work on them and I can spread out the work over a more days, so the revision process will be more thorough and done more accurately.
Overall this was a great start to the biology course. I think I have a pretty good handle on the concepts from the first unit especially considering how much information there was and the specific details needed to complete the labs. I am looking forward to doing a little better on the Unit II.

Unit 2 Compendium Review

Genetics Compendium Reviews
Genetics is responsible for the way people look, respond, and there susceptibility to hereditary and environmental diseases. Understanding how genetics works and how genes are passed on to offspring is vital to human development. When we discuss genetics there are two main cases, cell division in mitosis and cell division for sex cells meiosis. Both of these cellular divisions process are important and when genetic malfunctions occur the results can be detrimental in the worst and debilitating in the least.


Cell division
For cells in humans to divide the DNA in the double helix form is wrapped with protective proteins called chromosomes, when DNA is not dividing it is in a medium liquid surrounded by chromatin. The formation of exact replications of chromosomes allows for cell division and two exact sister copies of the parent cell. Cells must divide to repair damaged or dying parts of the body, or to allow the body to grow for individuals who are still young and not fully developed.
As stated there are two main types of cell division mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the process where two identical sister cells are made from on parent cell. These cells can then perform the same function as the parent cell and also divide to continue the process of producing two identical copies. In meiosis the parent cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes (called a karyotype) these chromosomes pairs have one chromosome from each parent for a total of 46 chromosomes (2n=4). These chromosomes represent the genes and genetic trait’s the offspring will have (also called a genotype). During the process of meiosis the parent cell divides into two daughter cells with each daughter cell having half of the parents chromosomes (n=2). These two daughter cells then divide again to form a total of four haploid cells. Each haploid cell now has just one member of the parent chromosome for four haploid cells each with n=2, this cell is called a gamete. The gamete is the sex cell for men and females, when two gametes join they then each share there compliment of chromosomes to make a zygote cell that has 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 individual chromosomes. The zygote now has the genetic traits of both parents and yet is different from either parent.


The four phases of Cell division in mitosis
The cell also has its own cycle called the cell cycle where there are two orderly process, the interphase and cell division. I will mostly be covering cell division.
The four phases of cell division are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telephase. In as the cell divides there is distinct break in that represents each of these phases. In fact these phases are only used to better organize a process that is fast, smooth and continuous. The advantage to describing the cell dividing process with these different phases is because the process of cell division can be stopped and these phases can then be seen under a microscope.
Prophase = During this phase the chromosomes condense and become visible under a microscope. The nuclear envelope fragments and the nucleolus disappears completely. Spindle fibers start to appear and attach to the centromere. The centromere is where the spindles develop from, which help to separate the chromosomes and pull them to opposite pulls. The centrosome on the other hand is the center location of the chromosome and holds the pairs together, the centrosome will be pulled apart by the spindles.
Metaphase = In this phase the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell also known as the equator and the spindles are fully formed and overlapping on the outsides.
Anaphase = In this phase the sister chromatids start to separate by the spindles pulling on the centrosome and pulling them to opposite pulls.
Telophase = In this final phase the chromosomes are at opposite pulls and breakdown to chromatin again as the nucleoli reappears for each set. As the nuclear envelope starts to reassemble there is a cleavage furrow associated with the cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm and organelles) which starts to separate the cytoplasm and form two daughter cells.
In the process of producing a the gametes the original parent cell undergoes 8 different phases broken down into meiosis 1 & 2. The process is very similar to the phases in mitosis but in the end instead of two identical sister cells, meiosis produces 4 haploid cells with only half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.


Alleles = The genotype refers to a specific gene the offspring will inherit from the parents. The phenotype is the physical presence of the genotype. The genotype for a individual could be for blue eyes. When that individual develops the blue eyes you have the phenotype. The allele is the code given to that particular trait such as “B” for a dominant allele for blue eyes, and “b” for a recessive allele for blue eyes.


DNA has special qualities which make the process of DNA transcription very efficient and quick. The primary feature is the double helix strand which is a trait for all DNA. The two complementary strands can unwind and special proteins can combine with the originals strands to form new identical DNA molecules.

Chrosomes = Are DNA molecules wrapped in special proteins giving the DNA a particular shape.

Gene expression = Is the term used to describe a particular section of a DNA code which proteins are made from to catalyze certain chemical reactions in cell metabolism. The process uses messenger mRNA which takes the DNA outside of the nucleus to the ribosome’s where amino acids take the encoded information and fold in a complex manner to make a protein.
Regulation of gene expression = The cell does not want all parts of the DNA gene making proteins all the time, so regulation is used to make sure only the genes needed for a particular chemical reaction are being produced. There are four major ways this is accomplished, transcriptional control, posttranscriptional control, translational control, and posttranslational control.


Controlling the process of genes and there for the metabolism of a cell are extremely important. When the process to control gene production and cell division fail the safeties are off and cancer can be the common result. With cancerous cells there are no safeties, the cells can divide with out restraint. The process for cancer starts with one cell going awry, and developing mutations which allow it to divide indefinitely, this process is initiation. In promotion a tumor develops which can either be encapsulated locally meaning it does not travel to other parts of the body or it can mutate and be able to invade other organs called progression. If the tumor cells are able to attack other organ parts and cells it has reached metastasis and can invade areas far from the origination location of the first cancer cell. This process is not supposed to happen in normal cell development and division, but when genetic or environmental factors with health problems become an issue it is much easier for these cancerous cells to occur.

Apoptosis = This is the term used for the automatic death of cells. Cells are designed to die after they have divided a preprogrammed number of times. There are a variety of factors involved but in cancerous cells the ability for the cell to die when it should does not occur.
Telomeres = Are the DNA sequence which programs the cell to undergo apoptosis when it should.


The term tumor refers to cancer cells which have continued to divide and have formed layers on top of each other. There are many individuals who have genes which cause cancers cells, these genes are called oncogenes. Cancer is also known to develop by mutating two types of genes. The proto-oncogenes is a code for proteins which promotes the cell cycle and prevents apoptosis. This gene will allow apoptosis at the right time but if it becomes mutated the cell cycle can just continue with out dying.
The other gene is tumor-suppressor genes which stop the cell cycle and promotes apoptosis. When this gene is mutated then again the cell cycle will continue without stopping.
Oncology is the study of cancer, and oncologists are doctors who treat and study cancerous cells. When a person is shown to have metastasis tumors which have invaded other parts of the body there chance for survival drastically goes down.
Tumors are classified in relation to which part of the body they affect.
Carcinomas = Cancer cells in the epithelial tissues, including skin, breast, liver, pancreas, intestines, lung, prostate, and thyroid cancer.
Sarcomas = Are cancers in the muscle and connective tissues like bone, and fibrous connective tissue.
Leukemia’s = Cancer of the blood.
Lymphomas = Cancer of the lymphatic tissue.

Corrected Fly lab photo for Genetics lab write up

Here is the correct genetics fly photo with the offspring included in the Punnett square.

Genetically Modified (GM)

When people and the media speak of genetically altered food they are normally referring to food products which are made from genetically enhanced organisms using a process called recombinant DNA technology. The discussion of whether to use genetically altered food (GM) is a heated debate surrounded by political, social, ethical and human issues. As I researched sources for this paper it became apparent that supporting one side of the argument over the other was almost impossible. The decision of whether we should use GM foods has a global impact on not only a countries economy but also there health a vitality. The resources and differing viewpoints on this subject are immense with just as many sources saying we should not use GM food as there is for yes we should. For my essay I will attempt to discuss some of the major concerns and benefits for both sides and how the eventual outcome over GM food will impact us as consumers.


To begin my essay I will start with a brief introduction on what recombinant DNA technology is. There are actually three major types of cloning and GM or recombinant cloning is only one, the other two major ones are reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning and all of these have alternate terms which are used but mean the same thing (ex. molecular and gene cloning both mean recombinant DNA cloning). In recombinant DNA cloning DNA from a particular organism is combined with a plasmid which can hold up to 20,000 foreign DNA strands and is a common source in biotechnology. The combined DNA plasmid is then used as the new DNA to create a new cell to grow. Bacteria is a common cell which the plasmid is combined with to form the new organism. This is a very basic description of the complex process involved with recombinant DNA technology.


The benefits
As of 2006 GM crops have accented from more than 252 million crops produced in over 22 countries. The wide range of crops produced include many basic staples in our diets and more importantly some primary food sources for underdeveloped or overpopulated countries diets. Some of these foods include, the sweet potato, rice, corn, cotton, and alfalfa. Advocates for GM food claim these products have numerous advantages over the real thing or naturally grow versions. They can be genetically altered to fight insects, viruses and even extreme weather. In some cases where a plaguing beetle or insect can destroy entire crops of potential food, GM crops can be designed to fight of these potential threats. There groups claiming GM crops and foods taste better, have higher yields, and improved resistance to disease. Scientists are working on new GM products like bananas which can be engineered to fight human disease as well as modified cows resistant to mad cow disease. Many scientist claim these crops are actually better for the environment, since they don’t require bio-insecticides which make them healthier for the consumer. GM crops and products have the potential for global impact especially in undeveloped countries. With these technologies we can produce reliable healthy food products to feed these groups of starving people. In the near future it may be possible to virtually eliminate global hunger with a relatively safe environmentally friendly food products, or so we think.


The negatives
There are groups who claim GM crops are good for the environment and have no significant health risks involved. Then there are groups who are avidly opposed to GM crops because they say there could potentially be huge environmental impacts as well as long term health affects for humans which we do not yet know about. Since long term effects of GM crops and products is not as well known at the moment there are potentials for cross-pollination which may change the crops in unknown ways. One of the major ethics issues is what will happen when you violate the genes of natural organisms and species, and what type of mutations could occur in the future. Then there is the social and economic impacts. The United States is one of the largest producers of GM foods, and a large percentage of those products are shipped overseas. This could start to create a world dominance where some major developed countries (USA, Europe) would be the main contributors of GM products to underdeveloped countries and therefore have significant influence over those countries economically and politically. As new technology is developed in biotechnology by rich countries, these advancements may not be shared with other poorer countries until political goals are satisfied.


These are just a few of the major issues involved with Genetically engineered food, there are many more factors and concerns involved besides what was mentioned. This is the point where I will enter some of my personal concerns. GM food is fast, efficient, and hopefully safe, and will only continue to improve and progress. We here in the United States enjoy many of the social benefits of a well developed and powerful nation, but other third world countries are not as lucky. Is it not the responsibility of countries like ours to contribute to countries worse off in order to improve those peoples way of life as a morality issue. We as a countries do this exact type of intervention all the time, when genocide or terrorism is happening in a lesser country we charge in and stop it for right or wrong. As a consumer when I go to the store I have the option to use my personal judgment and purchase a product which may be GM or one that has the “Free Range” label, this is a choice I get to make. In other countries the choice may be have some GM rice and corn or if you are against the way we develop these crops you can starve because your country does not have the resources to feed you. I am not in those person shoes but I would think when I am hungry and my family is hungry I am going to want some food regardless of the potential long-term health and environmental issues, I would want to eat.

Compendium Review unit 1

Human Evolution:
Evolution can explain the slow progression of the cell from a very simple Prokaryotic cell to a complex Eukaryotic cell and eventual progress into an organism. If you look back at history the story of evolution is clear. As with any controversial theory there are those who do not believe in the theory of evolution, they hold there ideas to other theories with no substantial proof. Today with modern technology there is strong evidence that all life as we know it started from one simple cell, and over millions of years that single cell evolved and became more advanced. Before the cell was formed you first had the atom, the fundamental building block of everything. The atom makes up all things organic and inorganic. From the atom the molecule was formed as the basis for living cells. From the cell all other life can be explained, an human organism is nothing if not millions of individual cells and molecules combined together.

Organic chemistry:
The study of one major element on the periodical table the Carbon Molecule. The Carbon Molecule is unique because it can for very long chains. The study of Carbon Molecules is biochemistry.
All cells are formed using 4 major molecules.

4 major molecules which make up a carbon-chain
- Carbohydrates = Are simple sugars broken down and used by the mitochondria in a cells metabolism process for energy.
- Proteins = Are made from amino acids, which are folded as amino chains in very complex and long forms to cause specific reactions (catalyzing specific chemical reactions). There can be thousands of different proteins used for specific reactions determined by there particular complex form.
Scientists are using super computers in a project called GenBlue to breakdown the proteins amino acid chains and try to understand there complex makeup. Even these super computers with the most advanced technology are having trouble understanding the complex makeup of proteins and how they fold.
- Fats = Also called Lipids form the cells membrane which separates the cell from the outside environment and allows the cell to maintain a homeostasis internal environment. (lipids basically do for the cell what the skin on our body does for us, protects from outside environment, helps regulate the internal environment and restricts what elements can enter via the proteins embedded it the cell membrane wall.
- DNA/RNA = Is made of nucleotides which form bases or a genetic sequence (A,C,T/U,G) millions of bases long. DNA has the ability to duplicate itself because it is very stable in its helix form. DNA holds all the genetic information for the cell and reproduction. DNA information is protected by chromosomes contained in the nuclear plasma and sent outside of the nuclear envelope using messenger mRNA.

Why does a cell need energy and what does a cell actually do? A cell needs to constantly produce energy just like a human organism. We constantly eat and drink to supply are body with nutrients, and many of those nutrients in one way or another go to the cells inside of us to supply them with energy for cellular metabolism and other functions. A cell uses energy to cause chemical reactions and when combined with thousands of other chemical reactions from thousands of other cells us life. Cells also use energy to reproduce themselves in cellular mitosis. When cells reproduce they can replace or repair dying or damaged cells or continue to help the body grow. The last concept here to point out is it takes thousands of chemical reactions to keep the simplest cells (e. coli bacteria) alive.
Cell Types:
Organism such as humans and plants are made of complex cells called Eukaryotic cells. Another much simpler and basic cell is the Prokaryotic cell. In the evolution of the cell there is proof that eukaryotic cells came from the prokaryotic cells combining together.
Prokaryotic Cells:
Are simple cells which are relatively small and generally have no organelles of there own. Prokaryotic cells are organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells. All bacteria are prokaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic Cells:
Are 100X the size of prokaryotic cells and are very complex with organelles which are internally organized for maximum efficiency. Again the reason cells are so effacement at producing energy and reproducing is through a very long evolutionary process.
Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic cells share some common traits. Both have a cell membrane and cytoplasm (fluid inside the cell). Each type of cell has ribosome’s for producing proteins from DNA. In the prokaryotic cell DNA molecules are free floating in the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotic cells there is a nucleus which houses the DNA with larger ribosome’s and all organelles are organized by an internal structure called the cytoskeleton. Both types of cells also have structures formed from microtubules for movement called flagella and cilia.

In describing the Eukaryotic cell and all its major functions I am going to start with the cell membrane and work inwards ending with cell reproduction.
Cell Membrane = As I have said before is the protection and separation of the cell from the outside environment. The membrane is formed from two layers of lipids (phospholipids bi layer) with proteins embedded in them which act as a gate to allow certain elements in and keep others out (selectively permeable). The cell needs a constant source of energy and a constant way to dispose of waste just like a human.
The cell has 5 major ways of movement across the plasma membrane. Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated transport, active transport and Endocytosis and exocytosis.
Since water is the universal solvent Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (diffusion). Using an anology of fire the smoke starts at the fire where there is a high concentration and wants to move away from the fire to a lower concentration in the air, eventually dissipating all together. When dealing with Osmosis the ideal situation is for the cell to have the same amount of water solute inside as the environment has outside called Isotonic. If there is too much water solute inside the cell compared to the environment outside the osmosis will pusch water out of the cell to equalize causing the cell to dry up (hypotonic). If the oposite occurs then the cell will get too much water and burst its normall shape (hypertonic).
With the concept of diffusion there is facilitated transport where the molecules will cross the the plasma membrane from higher concentration to lower concentration using a specific protein carrier imbedded with the lipids ( the protein carriers act as gates or pumps in the case of Active transport).
In a way active transport is opposite of the other three types of transport because regardless of the concentration levels a protein pump will use molecules of energy (ATP as the source of energy) and move molecules across the membrane.
The last two methods of transport are very similar, endocytosis is transporting molecules by ingesting them into the plasma membrane and forming a vesicle. Like forming a small version of the plasma membrane inside the cell as the molecule is transported inside. Exocytosis is the opposite and is used when the molecule inside is getting transported to the plasma membrane for removel out side of the cell.

For a cell the nucleus is the equivlent of our brain. All the information for reproduction and catalyzing reactions is housed in the nucleus in the form of DNA. The nucleus itself is housed in a nuclear envelope filled with nucleoplasm. Surronding the DNA are its personal group of proteins called chromatin which help in the transfer of information. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transported to the Ribosomes by way of messanger mRNA.
Ribosome’s are used for proteins synthesis using the rRNA information and with the help of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, using an anology of a productin line. The ribosomes would be the robots on the assembly line and the endoplasmic reticulum would be the conveyor belt. the mRNA would be the computer controlling what type of product the robots are making, and the proteins would be the acutall product.
The smoth endoplasmic reticulum is similar in a way but without the ribosomes they do not produce proteins instead they make lipids and carbohydrates for energy.
Some of the proteins , carbohydrates and lipids are used immediately and some need to be shipped to other parts of the cell or even outside of the cell. Vesicles are like packaging boxes they are small sacs used for transport.

The golgi apparatus would be the next phase after the proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates have been formed. In the golgi apparatus these molecules are packaged and ready for shipment. golgi apparatus also has lysosomes which have digestive enzymes for breaking down incoming molecules. The enzymes attach themselves to incoming vesicles to breakdown molecules entering from the cell membrane.
The cell still needs a constant source of energy to power all of the organelles, just like any city or house needs energy to run equipment. For the cell the mitochondria provides the source of energy. The mitochondria shares many characteristics of a eukaryotic cell and produces ATP (adenosine troposphere) as energy. For the mitochondria to make ATP it first process simple sugars normally in the form of glucose. The glucose is broken down in a citric acid cycle and ATP is formed. There are a few other ways the cell can get energy besides ATP, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids from the cell membrane.
There is another process where energy is made which does not include ATP or oxygen. Fermentation is a process which occurs in the cytoplasm using glycolysis, 2 ATP molecules and lactate are made and can supply a burst of energy.
The cell has its own special way of moving around in your body and also moving molecules it wants closer to the cell membrane. The cell uses cilia and flagella which are basically arms extending from the cell made of microtubules.

So far I have discussed in detail the different functions a cell performs to stay alive and active, now I will talk about what a cell can do for a living organism. Cells can organize with other cells in a common goal and create something very functional and a necessity to all living things, tissue and skin. There are four major tissue types in a human organism, connective, muscular, nervous, and epithelial. There are of course other types of tissues besides these four but these are the major ones for a human.
The epithelial tissues is like a sheet covering the body. These tissues are bonded together in a tight network around the body and provide protection to other body parts.
The connective tissue are tissues like tendons, bone, cartilage, and blood vessels to name a few. They support other body parts and can range from solid to liquid. There are three main types of connective tissues, fibrous, supportive, and fluid.
The muscle tissue help with body and vital organ movement. These tissues are made of muscle fibers and protein fibers called actin and myosin. They generally come in three types skeletal (you can feel on the outside of the body), smooth (is on the inside of the body), and cardiac (which as one example makes up the heart and can beat).
The nervous tissue connects all the different parts of the body to each other and sends the data and communications so all the different parts can work together. There are two major types of cell for this group, neurons which carry the actual messages, and neuroglia which support the neurons.

Genetics Lab

Introduction:
As individuals grow and develop they become more distinct as there genetic traits start to become visual. You can look at any one person and there parents and generally see more of a resemblance to one of the parents as to the other. These similarities for one parent as opposed to the other can easily be explained by the different genetic traits being passed on by the parents. Why is this important to the evolution of humans as a species. Many diseases have been linked to hereditary genes in either one parent or both. Understanding these hereditary links for diseases such as cancer can help scientists to possibly eliminate these genes from the gene pool. We have talked about evolution extensively in this class so far and evolution can also explain how some traits have become dominant in humans and others have not. If a trait is harmful to the human race then evolution says those individuals with these particular traits would die off over time and the individuals with healthy strong genes would continue to survive. My questions is if humans with out the help of scientific intervention could naturally eliminate some harmful genetic traits like cancer threw natural selection over a few hundred or thousand year period.

Terms
Genotype = The genotype is the actual genetic code which a parent passes on when there gamete (sex cell) with that individual parents 23 chromosomes merge with the other parents genetic code forming the zygote.
For Instance in our dragon lab the code for the dragon offspring to be blue was a lower case b. the “b” would represent the genotype code being passed on.
Phenotype = The phenotype is the physical representation of the genotype. In the dragon lab the genotype for blue skin was “b” and the phenotype was the blue color skin of the dragon.
Allele = Allele’s are the alternate form of a genotype. Allele’s come in pairs and are designated by letters, an uppercase letter indicates a dominant trait, and a lower case letter indicates a recessive trait. In the fly lab the allele’s for a black fly are a dominant trait so there allele code was two upper case LL’s. That particular fly could mate with any other fly and the offspring would still have the dominant trait of black color.
Cross = The term cross is used to show the combination of different allele’s being combined with the offspring. A cross between two parents with a homozygous dominant trait for wings in the dragon lab will produce offspring with wings. A cross between two parents with homozygous recessive genes for short tails will have offspring with all short tails. Finally a cross between two heterozygous dragons with genes for scales would produce a 3 to 1 ration in favor of the scales. If the dragons had 4 offspring three of them would have the trait for scales and one of them would have the recessive trait for no scales.
Dominant = A dominant gene is one that is going to be passed on to the offspring. No matter what the other parents genotype is for that particular trait, if one parent has a very dominant gene then the offspring will share that gene. Again the case of the fly lab there were two fly’s with gray bodies and one with a black body. The fly with the black body had an allele of LL indicating it was a dominant trait. By looking at the punnett square you can see all the offspring will have the dominant black colored body.
Recessive = A recessive gene is basically the opposite of the dominant gene. The only way a recessive gene will be passed on is when the paring of two parents both have at least one recessive gene for a particular trait. In our fly lab the we paired two heterozygous long-winged fly with gray bodies and a Ll as the allele. The offspring of this paring would have one individual would have three offspring with black bodies and one with a gray body. The gray bodied fly would have an allele of “ll” and that gene would still be recessive.

This picture shows two identical dragons. Both dragons have the same genetic makeup or genotypes as indicated by the chart on the right showing the letter codes for dominant and recessive allele‘s. On the chart the upper case letters indicate a homozygous dominant genotype, and the lower case letters show a homozygous recessive genotype.

This picture shows how the punnett square can predict what type of genetic crosses will occur when two fly’s with specific alleles have offspring. In this case both fly’s have heterozygous genotypes, so if the allele for a long wings is “L” and allele for short wings is “l” the offspring will be 3 to 1. Three of the zygote’s will have long wings (LL and Ll) and one of the zygote’s will have short wings (ll).

Conclusion:
Why does the child have red hair instead of black, or green eyes instead of brown. These features of a person are determined by the different genotypes being passed on from the parents and weather these traits are dominant or recessive. In my case I have wondered if the genotype for hair loss is dominant in myself or my brother. Both my parents have shown they have the genetic trait of hair loss. Is this specific trait for hair loss a dominant genotype? So far neither my brother or myself are showing signs of hereditary hair loss. For now I can only stand by helpless as genetics does its work, I know I either have the trait for hair loss or I don’t. After learning more about genetics I am somewhat disheartened because if both of my parents have hair loss then it would seem hair loss is a dominant trait, and in the future I can look forward to joining the millions of other Americans using Rogaine.

Cell Lab

Introduction:


The fundamental structure of all life is the cell. In this lab the goal is to produce an accurate representation of a cell and its working organelles, and processes. One of the fundamental characteristics of any living thing is the ability to replicate itself. So the model will also have to show the process for replication. For my model I decided to use items which could represent the organelles of a cell as well as building miniature representations of some of the organelles and parts. Using some imagination and photos from the PowerPoint and text book I assembled a cell model with both creativity and simple representation of a complex world.


Cell parts:
Cytoskeleton = yellow playground ball and paperclips for upper frame
Plasma membrane with bi layer lipids= blue tinted cellophane
Cell plasma = blue foam
Protein embedded in lipids for plasma membrane = one cut section of red rubber pencil grip
Nuclear envelope = tennis ball shell
Nucleus = plastic golf ball shell
DNA wrapped in chromatin = green/purple rubber pencil grips
mRNA = yellow rubber pencil grip
Ribosome’s = small spherical metal pieces
Rough endoplasmic reticulum = small wood logs with spiraling grooves
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum = small smooth round wooden balls
Protein being synthesized = 15amp fuses
Golgi apparatus = small wooden factory
Mitochondria = battery
Lysosomes = thumb monster with no hands
Vesicle = sowing thimble
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) = pencil eraser tips





In my first picture you have the front view of my completed cell model. Its my hope that a person familiar with the structure of a cell can see this one photo and recognize the concepts I was trying to reproduce. In this photo the cell membrane is very easy to identify as a selectively permeable layer, which separates the cells internal structure from the outside environment allowing the cell to be homeostasis. I also hope that even someone who is not familiar with a cell structure could see this picture and start to visualize what the different components could be representing.

In this photo I have some of the various tools and the majority of items I used to start the process of building a cell. Many of these items you will see in upcoming photos where there application will make more sense. One other thing to point out, for my model I started with certain ideas of what my cell would look like, and with any good creator of something the ideas evolved and many items were added to making the cell which are not shown in the picture.

This photo shows the basic structure my cell will be taking. For the cytoplasm, cytoskeleton and cell membrane I wanted a spherical look as well as a 3 dimensional representation. The rubber ball was perfect to use for showing circular uniformity. The ball shell represents the cytoskeleton which gives the cell its form and also keeps the organelles in a particular location within the cell. The blue foam acts as a medium for the rest of the organelles and represents the cell plasma generally made of water as the universal salute.

In this photo you can see the basic components for building the upper portion of the cytoskeleton and the framework for my visual aid of the cell membrane.

I used a soldering gun and paper clips to build a three leg frame with a triangle base. The triangle platform will have a protein representation on top to help explain how the cell membrane is permeable.

Here is the completed cytoskeleton with a triangle platform on top.

This is the most complicated photo in the sense there are multiple organelles and process taking place in this one picture. Starting with the nuclear envelope shown here as the outer circular shape (tennis ball shell) which house's the actual nucleus and DNA. The nucleus is shown as a white sphere (plastic golf ball shell). Inside the nucleus is the DNA (finger cushions for pencils). The DNA is shown already wrapped in protective proteins called chromatin (purple and green), but you can see the DNA symmetry representing the double helix structure (this will be explained in the next photo). Along with the DNA is the the messenger mRNA which transfers the genetic code from the nucleus outside of the nuclear envelope to the ribosome’s for protein synthesis. The messenger mRNA is shown as a strand of yellow mRNA transferring the genetic information to the ribosome’s were amino acids join with the mRNA and start to fold into the specific protien, this entire process is called "gene expression". The ribosome’s are shown as small spherical metal disks which are connected to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. I used small wooden logs with spherical groves wrapping around to show rough endoplasmic reticulum where the proteins are made. The proteins job is to cause specific catalyzing chemical reactions as one of thousands of reactions needed for the cells metabolism. Here you can see the proteins (blue 15 amp fuses) being made. Next to the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (small wooden spheres) which produces carbohydrates (long term energy for the cell) and lipids (used in the cell membrane).

This photo represents cell mitosis, cell mitosis is the splitting of a cell into two identical sister cells. During cell mitosis there are four phases the cell undergoes, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and finally telephase. When a cell actually separates the nuclear envelope and nucleus disappear leaving the chromosomes to replicate and then separate to opposite ends of the cell. The two identical chromosomes pairs are pulled apart by the spindle fibers (not shown). As the two daughter pairs fully separate and move to opposite ends the cell membrane pinches and two new daughter cells are made. In my photo the cell membrane is now represented by the tennis ball. The golf ball represents the nuclear envelope also separating as two new cells are made and the chromosomes are again shown as purple and green. The two stages this photo best represents is the metaphase and anaphase stages. In the first stage prophase, the nuclear envelope starts to break apart and spindle fiber start to appear. In the metaphase the chromosomes line up in the center or equator. In the anaphase the sister chromatids separate and move towards the poles. Of course in the final stage the nuclear envelope reappears as well as the nucleus and you have two new cells. This is a complicated process and I tried to simplify the process and show and accurate representation of the two of the four stages.

Here is the golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and a secretory vesicle. The golgi apparatus takes proteins and process them for shipping to other parts of the cell or its neighbors. When I think of the golgi apparatus I think of a factory taking in raw materials (the proteins) and carefully preparing them for shipping to there final destination. The golgi apparatus is shown as a miniature wooden factory. The lysosomes are one of the few organelles in the cell where I used a little more imagination to show the basic function. The lysosomes are made from the golgi apparatus and have enzymes which help break down incoming molecules from outside the cell membrane. Here I have a small monster of some sort eating (breaking down) a molecule making it ready for the cell to use elsewhere, good job enzyme. The last component in the photo is a secretory vesicle which is taking a packaged protein to the cell membrane where exocytose will export the protein outside of the cell. The vesicle is a sowing thimble filled with cell plasma.

Here is a good look at the mitochondria (battery) and the ATP (eraser tops) it produces. The mitochondria is the power producer of the cell and ATP is the primary source of energy. Mitochondria takes in simple sugars normally as glucose and produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate) the cells energy. Since a battery is the source of power for many household electronics it seemed a good representation for mitochondria.

Here is one of my favorite photos of the cell. You can clearly see many of the components and organelles in a nice display with the upper cytoskeleton and the protein on top. Proteins have a different shape for each different chemical reaction they cause. In this case the protein at the top of the cytoskeleton is connected to the cell membrane showing one of the ways molecules inside the cell can enter or leave. There are generally five different ways molecules can enter or leave a cell: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, active transport, and endocytosis and exocytose. For my model I am showing facilitated transport, the protein (red circular foam pad) will allow proteins to cross the plasma membrane.

This is the top view of my cell and shows the cell membrane fully covering the upper portion of the cell and the facilitated transport protein embedded with the two bi-layer lipids which from the plasma membrane (blue tinted cellophane).

The last photo is a side view of the cell and I think just helps to show the full three dimensional effect.

In conclusion this lab project was a lot of fun to make and equally time consuming. The main concept I have learned from this lab is cells are very complicated and complex. It was challenging just to build a model which showed the basics of a cell, let alone all the other aspects and processes a cell does thousands of times a day. I think my cell model would give an unfamiliar reader an idea of what is involved in cellular metabolism and reproduction.

Microscope lab

Before the invention of the microscope it must have been hard for scientists to defend many of there theories with out verification. When the microscope was invented it gave scientists the ability for very extensive research and to prove the concepts with visual stimuli. This one invention opened up a realm of possibilities that was previously unavailable to researchers.
The microscope provides the tool to visually see what is useable by the naked eye. For students in variety of fields we can see what is conceptually in textbooks. The microscope can be found today in a wide variety of professions ranging from scientist studying DNA to school teachers. If Zacharias Janssen could have foreseen the wide range of applications his simple (for the time) telescope would today be used for he would probably dismiss the thought as impossible.

At the very base function a telescope allows an individual to take something very small and magnify it a large number of times to see the very basic functions and chemical makeup of just about anything. For this lab I used a compound microscope, one of the most commonly used microscopes. The compound microscope is easy to use reliable and sturdy made from USA approved steel. This type of microscope uses light to show a two dimensional black and white image. It is easy to clean and maintain with basic equipment. The controls are fairly straight forward and again fairly simple to use and master.

(Modern Telescope with basic parts labeled.)

Basic parts of compound microscope:

I will start the list of parts going from the ground up. As I discuss each part you can refer to the diagram for any clarification. Like any piece of scientific equipment the microscope has a base to support the entire structure, normally fairly heavy and sturdy. A compound microscope uses a light source for illumination so a power switch is normally found on the base. Just above the center of the base is the actual light source which looks straight up to the stage and the aperture. The light should be in good shape and not burned out or you will not have a crisp image. From the base up the arm is a very important structure connecting the major components to the sturdy base. From the arm there are a variety of adjustment knobs. The first is the fine adjustment knob followed by the coarse adjustment knob. You will always use the coarse adjustment knob first to raise the stage up and down. Raising the stage is your first attempt at getting an image of the specimen (while looking threw the eyepiece). Once a image of the specimen has been obtained the fine adjustment knob will be used to get a more detailed and crisp view. the fine adjustment knob will have to be reset every time you switch to a higher magnification objective. The stage sits on gears connected to the base by the coarse adjustment knob and using the knob will physically raise or lower the stage. The stage contains the aperture, stage clips, and diaphragm. The aperture is a hole in the stage with a glass piece inside allowing for light to illuminate the specimen sitting on top of the stage. the Diaphragm is the device which controls how much light from the source actually gets to the aperture. In general for the lower magnifications less light is need for the image. As you increase the magnification you will rotate the diaphragm to allow more light and better detail. The stage clips will be used to hold the slide with the specimen physically in place on the stage. As a note there are normally also controls (not in the diaphragm) which would be used to move the stage clips left and right or front to back to center the specimen over the aperture. Connected to the arm is a stage stop which can be used to keep the stage at the preferred height and not allow it to creep down making your view out of focus. The most important component of the microscope is the objectives. These have varying degrees of magnification normally 4x 10x and 40x magnification. You can rotate between these using the nosepiece. the objectives will need to be cleaned and properly maintained or the view you have of the specimen could be dirty and unusable. The body tube connects the eyepiece to the rest of the microscope. Normally the body tube can be adjusted so the eye pieces are more inline with you vision for a better view. The eyepiece is where all the magic happens. If all the other components are set correctly you will be able to look threw the eyepiece and get an amazing view of some foreign world so small only the microscope can show you these wonders.

(Onion root magnified to 40x original size. )

Here is my 40x magnification for an onion root. Notice the clear bright image and crisp detail. I used the diaphram adjustment to get just the right amount of light. Using the fine adjustment knob gave me the clearest view of the onion root. I can clearly see the definition and texture of the cells making up the skin of the root.

There have been many great inventions of the past couple hundred years, but with the exceptions of the wheel, fire in mans early life, and Coca-cola in modern society, has a device had such profound effects. The microscope has been used in almost all major scientific breakthroughs in the 20th century. If Robert Hooke was alive today and had a PH.D from MIT who knows what innovations he could have made for the next generation of microscopes.