Compendium Review Ch.16,17,22,23,24

Compendium Review Unit V

Table of contents:
Male and Female Reproductive systems
Birth Control
STDs
Fertilization
Pregnancy and birth
Origin of Life
Charles Darwin
Human and Primates
Human Evolution
Ecosystems
Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Human Population Growth
MDCs and LDCs
Resources and Pollution
Biodiversity

Mitosis: is the process of cell division, where cells divide and have the exact same number of chromosomes as the original cell. These cells are used for growth, replacement or repair of other cells.

Meiosis: Is the process of the sex cells dividing from a man and women each with half the total number of chromosomes (46, 2n, diploid) in each cell (23, n. haploid). When the cells from a man (sperm) and a women (egg) combine the new cell is the zygote and it will have the new combination of 46 chromosomes.

Male reproductive organs : Testes, epididymides, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, bulbourethral glands, and penis.

Testes: are used to produce sperm and the sex hormones for males. The male sex hormones are produced in the testies as well.

Epididymides: This is where most sperm are stored and mature, after they leave they enter the vasa deferentia.

Vasa deferentia: Also a storage place for sperm, from here sperm enter an ejaculatory duct to the urethra.

Seminal vesicles: adds nutrients to the semen in the form of fluid

Prostate gland: contributes to the fluid the sperm will be traveling in

Urethra: is the outlet and path the sperm uses from storage to the woman’s vagina

Bulbourethral glands: adds its on mucus type fluid to the collection to help with sperm, this is a gland/organ about pea-sized.

Penis: the male organ used for intercourse, when the sperm leave the penis in semen fluid.

Spermatogenesis: is the process sperm go threw from a sex cell to a developed sperm, this occurs in three stages, mitosis, meiosis I and meiosis II.

Sperm: Mature sperm have three distinct parts a tail made of flagellum, middle piece which contains mitochondria to get energy from the semen and a head containing the nucleus.

Hypothalamus: controls the testes and production of sperm by releasing hormones called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and follicle-stimulation hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These hormones work in a system of negative feedback, as one is being produced in large amounts the other one decreases to a point where the hypothalamus stops production on that hormone and again increase production on the other types of hormones this keeps a constant supply of sperm with out to much at any one time.

Testosterone: is the main male sex hormone and is responsible for the growth and development of sex organs, also causes puberty and the bodies changes which occur.

Female reproductive system: Ovaries, Oviducts, Uterus (womb), cervix, vagina

Ovaries: produce eggs and sex hormones for women

Oviducts: holds the egg and is the place sperm travel to when attempting to fertilize and egg.

Uterus: has a sticky surface where the fertilized egg can nest as it starts to develop, the uterus is designed to expand as the zygote develops and grows larger.

Cervix: is the are that connects the uterus to the vagina and is located at nearly a right angle to the vagina

Vagina: female sex organ, can also extend and become larger for both the penis and during the process of giving birth, when the egg and associated fluid is not fertilized within a short period during a woman’s period the vagina is the exit point.

The external genitals of a women are collectively called the vulva and consist of the mons pubis, glans clitoris, urethra, vagina, labia minora, labia majora, and the anus.

Follicles: are contained within the ovaries and each one holds an immature egg.

Ovulation: is the process where the egg bursts from the vesicular follicle and travels to the oviduct ready to be fertilized.

Oogenesis: is the process of an immature egg undergoing meiosis after it is fertilized by a sperm to become a developing zygote.

The Female sex hormones
Estrogen/progesterone: is the hormone mainly responsible for a females development during puberty, and both estrogen and progesterone are used for developing breasts.

Menopause: is the process where woman around the age of 45-55 stop having ovarian cycles, there is still a lickely hood of pregnancy so women are not fully through this cycle until a year after there last menstruation.

Birth Control: The most common birth control methods
Abstinence (boring), intrauterine device, hormone skin patch, depo-provera, diaphragm and spermicidal jelly, female condom, male condom, implant, oral contraception.
Operations/physician needed: intrauterine device (IUD), Vasectomy (for men) and tubal ligation (for woman).
Assisted Reproductive technologies:
Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID), In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT), Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI).

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):
HIV/AIDs: known as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, there is no cure but drug treatment can help keep the disease under control. This virus effects the helper T cells lymphocyte and macrophages taking over the cell and producing more virus cells. Eventually the immune system will be so weak an opertunistic disease will kill you normally pneumonia.
Genital Warts: the human papillomaviruses (HPVs) common signs are warts which can be surgically removed
Genital Herpes: Herpes type 2 causes cold sores and blisters, when ruptured can be painful and lead to the risk of other STDs.
Hepatitis: can cause death by infecting the liver with liver cancer, can be spread threw sexual contact by blood borne transmition. There is a vaccine which most people get at a young age for hepatitis A, and B.
Chlamydia: is a bacterium with generally mild affects but can cause burning sensations in the penis during discharge, easily treated.
Gonorrhea: caused by bacteria will normally cause pain during urination but can also lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Can also spread to internal parts of the body causing many other complications.
Syphilis: Normally has 3 stages with the last stage being death. Caused by bacteria which can be treated with penicillin, if not treated a person will get a nasty chancre (open wound) where the bacteria entered, then spots all over the body, and finally nasty gummas (large open wounds, with bleeding) on the body and internal organs.

Chapter 17
Fertilization: is the term used when a sperm enters and fuses with an egg creating the first cell of a new baby the zygote. In normal fertilization only one sperm will enter the egg, as soon as one sperm enters enzymes are produced which make the outer layer of the egg inpenitrable.

The Process of Development:
Cleavage (cell division), Growth (daughter cells increase in size), Morphogenesis (shaping of embryo), Differentiation (first system is visible, nervous system)

Extraembryonic Membranes:
These membranes perform functions outside of the fetus but which contribute to the fetus developing, such as carrying nutrients and oxygen rich blood to the fetus and taking away waste and blood from the fetus. Chorion, Allantois, Yolk sac, Amnion.

3 stages of development of fetus: pre-embryonic development, embryonic, and fetal development.
Pre-embryonic: starts immediately following fertilization, in this phase the zygote starts to divide many different times, and the extraembryonic membranes (chorion) start do develop and contribute to the fetus.

Embryonic development: this stage occurs at the end of the first week into the second month, basically hormones are produced which will keep the pregnancy continuing through the term. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is secreted and acts like the luteinizing hormone (LH) after this hormone dissinigrates, this stage all has the remainder of the extraembryonic membranes to develop. During this stage the there are three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) all organs of a baby can be traced to one of these layers.

Fetal Development: By this stage all organs and human systems are developing and starting to function, blood is being pumped to the fetus, but the mothers blood and babies blood never mix. Each system in a developing embryo is vulnerable to substance abuse at different times during a pregnancy. By the third and fourth months the baby looks like a human baby and is increasing in size and weight more rapidly.

Male and Female Genitals:
For the first 6 weeks of development the fetus has the same developing organs and the sex is not distinguishable. Both have gonads, mullerian duct, wolffian duct, probladder, kidney, ureter, and cloaca. If the gene SRY is present the wolffian duct develops into testes and testosterone is produced, if the gene is not present then the wolffian duct develops into ovaries. In males one other hormone called drotestosterone (DHT) is responsible for external genitals of males to develop.

3 Stages of birth

Stage 1: the first stage of labor is marked by contractions of the uterus, as the uterus is pulled upward toward the baby’s head.

Stage 2: in stage two the contractions speed up and occur every 1-2 minutes. These contractions are felt with more urgency and the woman will desire to start pushing. The second stage includes the entire birth of the baby and until the baby is breathing normally on its own.

Stage 3: is the afterbirth where the placenta and all associated membranes used in the birthing process are expelled out threw the vagina.

Chapter 22

Earth: It is estimated that earth as we know it today started forming about 10 million years ago. As the earth started to form its mass was large enough to build an atmosphere which at this time was inhospitable to any life ( gases from volcanoes, water vapor, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and small amounts of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and almost no oxygen). As the earth started to cool the clouds in the atmosphere started producing rain and the oceans were formed leading the way to life.

Small Organic Molecules: Primitive gases eventually started reacting with each other fueled by energy from volcanoes gases reacting with each other produced small organic compounds.

Macromolecules: two popular hypothesis explain how small organic molecules turned into macromolecules, the first is RNA-first hypothesis. This hypothesis states that at first only RNA and not DNA was needed for reproduction, this is because the RNA has different enzymes which could have been used as substitutes for the lack of DNA allowing reproduction and then eventually DNA to form. The second line of thought is protein-first hypothesis, this one states amino acids collected in small pools of water from waves and reacted with the suns energy to form small polypeptides. When these small proteinoids returned to the water they resembled a cell.

Protocell: A protocell would have been the most likely next stage, having a metabolism eating abundant small food from the ocean. This cell would have been a fermenter (makes its own oxygen) and a heterotroph (eats preformed food).

True Cell: Both hypothesis stated up above have explanations for how the first true cell got both DNA for cell division and proteins for the replication process, in any case modern cells can use DNA to make exact replicas of itself and thus sustain all living organisms.

Common Decent: is the theory that all living things came from simple beginnings and we all came from the same simple organism millions of years ago. This hypothesis is confirmed by the vast amount of fossil history we have uncovered showing all living species came from the water and from the same species started to develop into different species threw evolution and millions of years.

Archaeopteryx: Are fossil evidence of our common ancestory and shows a evolutionary connection between reptile and land animals (this species links these two groups of animals)

Ambulocetus: Are fossils of another animal which represents an evolutionary link between terrestrial land animals and whales.

Charles Darwin: theory explains how species of animals or plants or any living thing on earth has evolved to best fit there environment and survive in difficult regions. He basically states that threw hundreds or thousands of offspring from any given organism there will be a few who have slightly changed genetic genes which gives them an advantage over the rest of there relatives in a specific environment. These slightly improved organisms mate or reproduce and threw natural selection and limited amounts of food and resources over many generations all the future offspring now have those characteristics. So in a nut shell only the strong with the best genes survive to reproduce others.

Classifications of Humans: humans are Homo sapiens which are modern humans with developed speech, culture and highly developed brains.

Relationship between Humans and Primates: its important to note we are not decendents of modern chimpanzees or apes because we are all living during the same time period, they are distant cousins of ours and we all developed from the same tree climbing ancestor some 70 million years ago.

Lucy: the fossil findings of Lucy are very important because it shows the link from ancient Australopithecines and how we evolved from them to modern humans. Lucy was an Australopithecines. Afarensis found in Eastern Africa and helps support the theory that all of human evolution most likely started in Africa and through competition a curious nature and migration expanded from Africa to all other continents today.

Human Evolution: As millions of years passed humans become more developed and sophisticated during different periods of time. Our bodies have also changed from our ancestors who were built bigger for hunting to us which in comparison are smaller in stature. Neandertals had massive muscles made stone tools, were excellent hunters, had a form of speech to coordinate there hunting for bigger game, and used fire. Cro-Magnon made more sophisticated tools, had a developed culture and artistic talents. This group made pictures inside of caves showing the ability to think and draw but also most likely and advanced from of communication and language. Modern humans have different posture and physical build then our ancestors as well as large brains for more complex thought process.

Chapter 23